HOW TO SPEAK (REAL) POLISH

Polish grammar is easy to learn! This Grammar Section is designed to help you grasp the essential rules as quickly and clearly as possible, so you can begin forming your own sentences from day one. Unlike other courses that overwhelm you with theory, our approach focuses on the most important rules that will allow you to speak Polish confidently and naturally—starting today.

In the lessons ahead, you’ll find everything you need to master Polish grammar, from basic sentence structure and verb conjugations to more advanced topics like noun gender, article usage, and prepositions. Each topic is explained with practical, easy-to-understand examples to help you not only learn the rules but also remember and apply them. We recommend learning the core 2000 Polish vocabulary words first—this will make the examples much easier to follow and internalize.

The grammar topics covered include the Polish alphabet, gender and number agreement, definite and indefinite articles, personal and possessive pronouns, conjunctions and prepositions. You’ll also dive into adverbs, adjectives, present, past and future tenses, as well as the imperative, modal verbs, negation, sentence structure, questions, and  relative clauses.

Click on any section title to jump directly to the topic you're interested in, or start from the beginning and let your knowledge grow naturally.

Polish Pronunciation

Polish pronunciation is a key component of mastering the language. While the Polish alphabet is based on the Latin script, it includes several unique letters and sound combinations that can pose challenges for learners. However, Polish is largely phonetic—meaning that once you learn the rules and letter-sound correspondences, you can usually pronounce words correctly by sight. This guide will take you through the essential aspects of Polish pronunciation from a grammatical perspective, including the alphabet, stress, soft and hard consonants, nasal vowels, palatalization, and voicing assimilation.

The Polish Alphabet and Phonemic Consistency

Polish uses a modified Latin alphabet of 32 letters, including several letters with diacritics such as ą, ć, ę, ł, ń, ó, ś, ź, ż. These diacritics represent distinct sounds and are crucial to pronunciation. Every letter generally corresponds to one sound, which makes Polish more regular in pronunciation than English.

For example:
mama mother
dom house
kot cat

Each of these words is pronounced just as it is written. Unlike English, Polish doesn’t contain silent letters in native vocabulary.

Stress Patterns in Polish

In standard Polish, stress is usually placed on the penultimate syllable—the second-to-last syllable of a word. This rule is consistent across most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the present tense.

For example:
kobieta woman (stress on bie)
samochód car (stress on mo)
czytamy we read (stress on ta)

However, some exceptions exist. Certain verb forms, especially in the past tense with pronouns attached, shift the stress to the third-from-last syllable.

czytałem I was reading (masc.) (stress on ta)
czytałbym I would read (masc.) (stress on czy)

Loanwords can also retain their original stress patterns, especially in formal or educated speech.

Soft and Hard Consonants

Consonants in Polish can be either soft (palatalized) or hard. This distinction affects pronunciation and sometimes meaning. Soft consonants are usually followed by i or are marked by diacritics such as ś, ź, ć, ń. These sounds are produced by raising the middle of the tongue toward the hard palate.

For example:
siostra sister (soft ś)
dzień day (soft ń)
ćwiczyć to practice (soft ć)

In contrast, hard consonants are pronounced with the tongue in a lower or more retracted position.

kasa cash register
dom house
góra mountain

Some consonants change their hardness or softness depending on grammatical form, which is especially noticeable in noun declensions and verb conjugations.

Nasal Vowels: Ą and Ę

Polish is one of the few Slavic languages to retain nasal vowels, represented by ą and ę. These vowels are pronounced with air flowing through both the nose and mouth, similar to nasalized vowels in French.

kąt corner
pięć five
wąż snake

The pronunciation of nasal vowels can vary depending on the sounds that follow. For instance, when ę comes before a plosive like t or d, it is pronounced more like en.

będę I will be
tędy this way

Nasal vowels can also become denasalized in casual speech, particularly in rapid conversation, though this is considered informal.

Palatalization and Yod Coarticulation

Polish is rich in palatal sounds, many of which involve the yod ([j] sound) or a high front vowel like i influencing the preceding consonant. This coarticulation affects pronunciation and is often reflected in spelling.

kiedy when
dziewczyna girl
piękny beautiful

These combinations produce unique consonantal sounds that learners must train their ears and tongues to recognize and reproduce. It is especially important in distinguishing words that differ only by the softness or palatalization of a consonant.

Voicing and Devoicing Assimilation

Polish exhibits regressive assimilation of voicing, meaning that the voicing of a consonant may change depending on what follows it. Voiced consonants may become voiceless when followed by a voiceless consonant, and vice versa.

chleb bread (the b is devoiced to p when final)
zbudować to build (the z is voiced due to b)
prośba request (pronounced with a voiced ż sound)

This phonological process is particularly important at word boundaries, where mispronunciation can lead to confusion or non-native sounding speech. It reflects a rule-based harmony in Polish phonetics, and learners should become familiar with common patterns through listening and practice.

Cluster Consonants and Pronunciation Challenges

Polish allows dense consonant clusters, which can be difficult for non-native speakers to articulate smoothly. These clusters often appear at the beginning or end of words and require attention to syllable separation and articulation.

wstrząs shock
przyszłość future
szczęście happiness

Mastering these clusters takes time and should be approached with careful listening and slow repetition. Native speakers instinctively handle these sequences, but learners must consciously develop the muscle memory to produce them clearly.

Pronunciation in Grammar: Morphological Clues

Pronunciation also plays a role in identifying grammatical categories. For example, the stress pattern or vowel alternation may indicate verb tense, noun case, or aspect.

mówić to speak
mówię I speak
mówił he spoke

In some cases, subtle pronunciation differences distinguish between grammatical forms:

zamek castle
zamek zipper

Though spelled the same, they are pronounced differently due to stress and vowel quality. This is a rare case in Polish but illustrates how pronunciation interacts with grammar and meaning.

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Gender of Nouns in Polish

Gender of Nouns in Polish

In Polish, every noun belongs to a grammatical gender. Unlike English, which only applies gender to living beings based on biological sex (he, she, it), Polish applies gender to all nouns—animate and inanimate alike. Understanding how gender works is essential for mastering the Polish language because it affects not only the form of nouns themselves, but also adjectives, pronouns, numerals, and verbs that agree with them.

There are three main genders in Polish: masculine, feminine, and neuter. However, masculine nouns are further divided into three subcategories: masculine personal, masculine animate, and masculine inanimate. This additional distinction is particularly important when it comes to plural forms and verb agreement.

Masculine Nouns

Masculine nouns typically end in a consonant in their base form. For example:

dom house
pies dog
student student
telefon telephone

Among masculine nouns, we distinguish between personal, animate, and inanimate.

• Masculine personal nouns refer to male humans or male beings with personhood (e.g. a man, a father, a king). These trigger special plural forms.

  nauczyciel teacher (male)
  król king

• Masculine animate nouns refer to non-human but animate male beings, mostly animals. These affect accusative case endings but do not trigger personal plural forms.

  lew lion
  pies dog

• Masculine inanimate nouns refer to objects or abstract concepts. These do not affect case agreement as strongly and behave more neutrally.

  stół table
  czas time

Feminine Nouns

Feminine nouns usually end in the vowel -a, though some exceptions exist. The typical ending helps learners identify the gender quickly.

kobieta woman
rzeka river
książka book
niedziela Sunday

Some feminine nouns do not end in -a, especially those that end in soft consonants like -ść, -ń, or -ź, often abstract or collective in nature:

miłość love
wieś village
myśl thought

These forms are still considered feminine despite not following the standard pattern.

Neuter Nouns

Neuter nouns generally end in -o, -e, or -ę. These endings are distinct and usually identify inanimate things or abstract concepts.

okno window
dziecko child
morze sea
zwierzę animal

Diminutives and technical terms often fall into the neuter category as well. The form of the noun often signals its gender clearly, and neuter nouns have their own agreement rules with adjectives and verbs.

Why Gender Matters in Polish

The gender of a noun affects the form of:

• Adjectives: The word for beautiful changes depending on the noun it describes.

  piękny dom beautiful house (masculine)
  piękna kobieta beautiful woman (feminine)
  piękne dziecko beautiful child (neuter)

• Verbs in the past tense: In Polish, the verb form changes based on the subject’s gender.

  On był w domu He was at home
  Ona była w domu She was at home
  Ono było w domu It was at home

• Pronouns: Personal pronouns vary by gender.

  on he
  ona she
  ono it

• Numerals and case endings: The form of numbers and the endings used in plural depend on the gender.

  dwaj uczniowie two male students (masculine personal)
  dwie kobiety two women (feminine)
  dwa okna two windows (neuter)

Plural Gender Rules

The gender of nouns also determines the form of plural verbs, adjectives, and numerals. One of the most important distinctions is between masculine personal plural and non-masculine plural.

Masculine personal plural is used when the group includes at least one male person:

Oni byli zmęczeni They (men or mixed group) were tired
One były zmęczone They (women or things) were tired

This distinction affects not only grammar but social meaning—it's a core feature of how Polish encodes gender into speech.

Gender and Meaning

In some cases, nouns with different genders can share a root but have different meanings. Consider:

zamek castle (masculine inanimate)
zamek zipper (masculine inanimate)
zamek lock (masculine inanimate)

Despite different meanings, the grammatical gender remains the same. But compare this to:

lato summer (neuter)
lat years (plural, masculine or neuter depending on context)

Grammatical gender is not always tied to logical or natural gender. For example:

dziewczyna girl is feminine
dziecko child is neuter
osoba person is feminine, even when referring to a man

Plural formation in Polish is a central part of grammar that affects nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. Unlike English, where pluralization is mostly a matter of adding -s, Polish has a more complex system that reflects the gender, animacy, and case of nouns. Understanding plural forms is crucial for both building vocabulary and forming grammatically correct sentences.

Basic Plural Endings

To form the plural of a noun in Polish, you must first know its gender. The endings used for plural nouns depend on whether the noun is masculine personal, masculine non-personal, feminine, or neuter.

Masculine personal nouns (referring to male humans) typically take the ending -i or -owie.
Masculine non-personal, feminine, and neuter nouns typically take -y, -i, or -a, depending on the word.

człowiek man → ludzie people (irregular)
student student (male) → studenci students
kot cat → koty cats
kobieta woman → kobiety women
dziecko child → dzieci children (irregular)
okno window → okna windows

Masculine Personal vs. Non-Personal Plurals

One of the most important distinctions in Polish grammar is between masculine personal and non-personal plurals. This distinction affects not only the noun itself but also adjectives, past tense verbs, and pronouns that accompany it.

To są dobrzy lekarze These are good doctors (masculine personal)
To są dobre psy These are good dogs (masculine non-personal)

Masculine personal nouns refer to groups that include at least one male human. All other groups, including male animals and inanimate objects, are considered non-personal.

Feminine and Neuter Plurals

Feminine nouns generally form the plural by replacing -a with -y or -i, depending on the final consonant.

kobieta woman → kobiety women
siostra sister → siostry sisters

Neuter nouns typically replace -o, -e, or -ę with -a.

okno window → okna windows
morze sea → morza seas
zwierzę animal → zwierzęta animals

Note that some neuter nouns, especially those ending in -ę, may have irregular plural forms.

Spelling and Sound Adjustments

Some nouns undergo consonant or vowel changes when pluralized, especially when the ending causes a softening of the stem.

nauczyciel teacher → nauczyciele teachers
król king → królowie kings
liść leaf → liście leaves

The softening of consonants before -e, -i, or -ie often triggers palatalization. Learners must become familiar with these phonological shifts through repetition and exposure.

Irregular Plurals

Polish, like many languages, has a set of irregular plural forms that must be memorized.

człowiek man → ludzie people
dziecko child → dzieci children
oko eye → oczy eyes
ucho ear → uszy ears

These plurals often come from historical changes in the language and do not follow modern patterns.

Adjective Agreement with Plural Nouns

When an adjective modifies a plural noun, it must agree in gender and number. This means that masculine personal nouns require different adjective endings than feminine, neuter, or non-personal masculine ones.

dobrzy nauczyciele good teachers (men)
dobre dzieci good children
ładne kobiety pretty women
wysokie budynki tall buildings

Verb Agreement in the Past Tense

In the past tense, Polish verbs agree in number and gender with their subject. The verb ending changes depending on whether the subject is masculine personal plural or non-masculine plural.

Oni byli zmęczeni They (men) were tired
One były zmęczone They (women or things) were tired

This agreement is visible only in the past tense and conditional, not in the present tense.

Numerals and Plural Forms

The form of a noun following a number in Polish depends on the numeral. Numbers like 2, 3, 4 use the nominative plural, while numbers 5 and above use the genitive plural.

dwa koty two cats
pięć kotów five cats
cztery kobiety four women
osiem kobiet eight women

This pattern also affects adjective and verb agreement, and is one of the trickiest features of Polish grammar for learners to master.

Plural in Polish

Cases in Polish

One of the most fundamental aspects of Polish grammar is its case system. In Polish, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and numerals change their form depending on their grammatical function in the sentence. This system is known as declension, and the different grammatical roles are expressed through seven cases. Each case answers specific questions and is associated with certain prepositions and syntactic functions.

Understanding Polish cases is essential to forming correct sentences and interpreting meaning accurately. Instead of relying on word order like English, Polish relies on case endings to show who is doing what to whom.

Nominative Case (Mianownik)

The nominative case is the base form of a noun and is used for the subject of the sentence—the person or thing performing the action.

kot cat
pies dog
kobieta woman

Kot śpi
The cat is sleeping

Pies szczeka
The dog is barking

Use this case when naming or identifying things or people.

Genitive Case (Dopełniacz)

The genitive case often expresses possession, absence, or quantity, and is used after many prepositions like do, od, bez, and z.

brat brother → brata of the brother
kawa coffee → kawy of the coffee

Nie ma brata
There is no brother

Szklanka kawy
A glass of coffee

This case also follows numbers from 5 and above, and is common in negative expressions.

Dative Case (Celownik)

The dative case is used for the indirect object—typically the recipient of an action. It answers the question “to whom?” or “for whom?”.

dziecko child → dziecku to the child
mama mom → mamie to mom

Daję prezent dziecku
I’m giving a gift to the child

Pomagam mamie
I’m helping my mom

This case is often used with verbs like pomagać (to help) and dziękować (to thank).

Accusative Case (Biernik)

The accusative case is used for the direct object—the person or thing directly receiving the action. It also follows certain prepositions indicating motion or direction, such as na, w, and przez.

książka book → książkę
chleb bread → chleb

Czytam książkę
I am reading a book

Kupuję chleb
I’m buying bread

It is also used to express time durations and distances.

Instrumental Case (Narzędnik)

The instrumental case indicates the means by which something is done, or accompanies the verb "to be" when describing professions or characteristics. It is also used with prepositions like z, nad, pod, and przed when describing static positions.

nauczyciel teacher → nauczycielem
kobieta woman → kobietą

Jestem nauczycielem
I am a teacher

Idę z kobietą
I’m going with the woman

This case answers the question “with whom?” or “with what?”

Locative Case (Miejscownik)

The locative case is used only with prepositions and refers to location or place. It typically follows w, na, o, po, and przy.

dom house → domu
uniwersytet university → uniwersytecie

Jestem w domu
I am at home

Rozmawiamy o uniwersytecie
We are talking about the university

This case answers the question “where?” and is always used with a preposition.

Vocative Case (Wołacz)

The vocative case is used for direct address—when calling someone by name or getting someone’s attention. While its forms often resemble the nominative, it has distinct endings, especially for masculine nouns.

Anna → Anno
Piotr → Piotrze
kolega friend → kolego

Anno, chodź tutaj!
Anna, come here!

Piotrze, co robisz?
Piotr, what are you doing?

This case is mostly used in spoken Polish, greetings, and formal address.

Cases and Word Order

Because Polish uses cases to mark grammatical roles, word order is more flexible than in English. You can rearrange elements for emphasis or stylistic purposes without losing clarity.

Kot zjadł rybę
The cat ate the fish

Rybę zjadł kot
It was the cat that ate the fish

The cases indicate the subject and object regardless of the word order.

Prepositions and Cases

Many Polish prepositions govern specific cases, and using the wrong case can change the meaning or make the sentence incorrect. Some prepositions, like w, na, z, and do, may require different cases depending on context (motion vs. location).

w domu (in the house – locative)
do domu (to the house – genitive)
z domu (from the house – genitive)
na stole (on the table – locative)
na stół (onto the table – accusative)

Mastering these combinations is key to fluency.

Pronouns in Polish function much like in English—they stand in for nouns to avoid repetition and clarify meaning. However, Polish pronouns are more complex due to the language’s system of gender, case, and formality. Every pronoun must agree in number, gender, and case with the noun it replaces or refers to. Understanding how pronouns work is essential for building natural, fluent sentences in Polish.

Personal Pronouns

Polish personal pronouns change according to person, number, and gender. In the nominative case (used for the subject of the sentence), the forms are:

ja I
ty you (singular, informal)
on he
ona she
ono it
my we
wy you (plural or formal group)
oni they (masculine personal)
one they (non-masculine or feminine)

The plural forms oni and one are particularly important in Polish. Use oni when referring to groups that include at least one male person. Use one for groups of only women or for objects and animals.

Oni są zmęczeni
They (men or mixed group) are tired

One są gotowe
They (women or things) are ready

Dropping Pronouns

Because Polish verbs are heavily inflected, the subject pronoun is often dropped—especially in informal speech—since the verb ending already indicates the subject.

Jem jabłko
I am eating an apple

Piszemy list
We are writing a letter

However, pronouns may be included for emphasis or clarity.

Ja jem jabłko, nie ty
I am eating the apple, not you

Object Pronouns and Cases

Pronouns in Polish change their form depending on the grammatical case. For example, the pronoun ja (I) changes to mnie or mi in other cases:

Widzę mnie
I see myself (accusative)

Daj mi książkę
Give me the book (dative)

Each personal pronoun has several case forms: accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, and locative. Choosing the correct form depends on the verb and the sentence structure.

Reflexive Pronoun: “się”

Polish uses the reflexive pronoun się to indicate that the subject is performing an action on itself.

Myję się
I am washing myself

On się uczy
He is learning

The pronoun się is inseparable from the verb and always follows the verb or is placed between auxiliary verbs and participles in compound forms.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns in Polish agree with the gender, number, and case of the noun they modify—not with the owner.

mój my (masculine)
moja my (feminine)
moje my (neuter)

twój your (singular)
nasz our
wasz your (plural)

To jest mój dom
This is my house

To jest moja książka
This is my book

To jest moje dziecko
This is my child

As with adjectives, these pronouns must be declined for case.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns help specify or point out nouns.

ten this (masculine)
ta this (feminine)
to this (neuter)
tamten, tamta, tamto that (more distant)

Ten samochód jest nowy
This car is new

Tamta kobieta mnie zna
That woman knows me

These pronouns are also declined according to case.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.

kto who
co what
czyj whose
jaki which, what kind of

Kto to jest?
Who is that?

Co robisz?
What are you doing?

Czyj to pies?
Whose dog is that?

These pronouns also change with case and gender in more complex sentences.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns connect clauses and refer back to a noun.

który who, which, that
co that, which (less formal)

To jest mężczyzna, który tu pracuje
That is the man who works here

To jest wszystko, co wiem
That is all that I know

The form of który changes according to case, gender, and number.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things.

ktoś someone
coś something
nikt no one
nic nothing
każdy everyone, each
wszystko everything

Ktoś puka do drzwi
Someone is knocking at the door

Nie widzę nic
I don’t see anything

Pronouns in Polish

Prepositions in Polish are words that indicate the relationship between elements in a sentence, often involving location, direction, time, or cause. Like in many languages, prepositions are followed by nouns or pronouns—but in Polish, the noun or pronoun must be in the correct grammatical case. This makes learning Polish prepositions more complex, since each one governs a specific case (or in some cases, more than one).

Understanding Polish prepositions involves not just memorizing them, but also learning which case they require and how they function semantically and grammatically in context.

Prepositions and Case Usage

Each preposition in Polish requires a specific grammatical case, such as the genitive, accusative, locative, instrumental, or dative. Some prepositions can govern more than one case, changing their meaning depending on which is used.

For example:
do to → requires the genitive case
na on, to → requires either locative (static) or accusative (movement)

Idę do sklepu
I’m going to the store (genitive)

Jestem na dworcu
I’m at the station (locative)

Idę na dworzec
I’m going to the station (accusative)

Prepositions of Place

These prepositions express location or movement and are among the most frequently used.

w in – used with locative
na on – used with locative or accusative
do to – used with genitive
z from, with – used with genitive or instrumental
pod under – used with accusative or instrumental
nad above – used with accusative or instrumental
przed in front of – used with instrumental
za behind, for – used with accusative or instrumental
obok next to – used with genitive

Mieszkam w Warszawie
I live in Warsaw

Położyłem książkę na stole
I put the book on the table

Idziemy do muzeum
We are going to the museum

Prepositions of Time

These prepositions describe when something happens. They may require various cases depending on the structure.

od since, from – used with genitive
do until – used with genitive
przed before – used with instrumental
po after – used with locative
w in, on (day/date) – used with accusative
o at (hour) – used with locative

Od poniedziałku do piątku pracuję
I work from Monday to Friday

W niedzielę odpoczywam
I rest on Sunday

Spotykamy się o szóstej
We are meeting at six o’clock

Prepositions of Cause, Purpose, and Means

These prepositions express reason, cause, purpose, or the means by which something is done.

dla for (someone’s benefit) – used with genitive
przez because of, through – used with accusative
z powodu because of – used with genitive
dzięki thanks to – used with dative
za for (in exchange, support) – used with accusative
bez without – used with genitive

To jest prezent dla ciebie
This is a gift for you

Z powodu choroby nie przyszedł
He didn’t come because of illness

Dzięki tobie zdałem egzamin
Thanks to you, I passed the exam

Prepositional Phrases and Case Shifts

Some prepositions change meaning depending on the case used, particularly those involving motion vs. static position.

w with accusative: motion into
w with locative: static location

Wchodzę w pokój
I’m entering the room

Jestem w pokoju
I’m in the room

na with accusative: motion onto
na with locative: location on

Wchodzę na dach
I’m going onto the roof

Jestem na dachu
I’m on the roof

These shifts are common and essential to master, as they express different meanings with the same preposition.

Compound Prepositions

Polish also uses compound prepositions, often built from a noun and a simple preposition, and they require specific cases.

z powodu because of – genitive
w związku z in connection with – instrumental
wbrew against, contrary to – dative
w trakcie in the course of – genitive

W związku z sytuacją odwołujemy spotkanie
Due to the situation, we are canceling the meeting

Prepositions with Pronouns

When used with pronouns, prepositions often require special pronoun forms. For example:

dla mnie for me
do niego to him
z nami with us
przed tobą in front of you

These combinations are common and should be memorized in context to become fluent in both speech and writing.

Prepositions in Polish

Conjunctions are essential elements in Polish that link words, phrases, or entire clauses. They help express coordination, contrast, cause, purpose, condition, and time. Just like in English, conjunctions in Polish make speech and writing more fluid and coherent. They do not change form, are not declined, and are relatively straightforward to use once their meanings and functions are understood.

Polish conjunctions fall into several categories: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative. Mastering them will allow you to form complex sentences, clarify logical relationships, and express nuance in conversation.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions in Polish connect elements of equal grammatical status, such as two nouns, verbs, or independent clauses. They do not affect word order or verb forms.

i and
a and/but (contrastive)
oraz and also
ale but
lecz but (more formal)
lub or
albo or (alternative)
więc so, therefore
zatem thus
jednak however
czy or (used in questions)

Kupiłem chleb i mleko
I bought bread and milk

On jest wysoki, a jego brat niski
He is tall, and his brother is short

Nie lubię kawy, ale ją piję
I don’t like coffee, but I drink it

Czy chcesz kawę, czy herbatę?
Do you want coffee or tea?

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, and they often change the word order of the sentence. These conjunctions show relationships such as cause, time, condition, purpose, or contrast.

że that
ponieważ because
bo because (colloquial)
gdy when
kiedy when
jeśli if
jeżeli if
chociaż although
zanim before
aż until
żeby in order to, so that
aby in order to (formal)
choć though
skoro since, given that
jak as, how

Wiem, że ona przyjdzie
I know that she will come

Nie poszliśmy na spacer, ponieważ padało
We didn’t go for a walk because it was raining

Jeśli masz czas, zadzwoń do mnie
If you have time, call me

Zanim wyjdziesz, posprzątaj pokój
Before you leave, clean your room

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs that work together to join equivalent elements. They are used to express alternatives, balance, or emphasis.

zarówno… jak i both… and
ani… ani neither… nor
albo… albo either… or
czy… czy whether… or
nie tylko… ale także not only… but also

Zarówno mama, jak i tata byli zmęczeni
Both mom and dad were tired

Ani on, ani ja nie chcemy iść
Neither he nor I want to go

Nie tylko pracuje, ale także studiuje
She not only works but also studies

Word Order with Conjunctions

When using subordinating conjunctions, the verb typically moves to the end of the clause. This is different from English, where word order is more rigid.

Wiem, że on to zrobi
I know that he will do it

Chociaż padało, poszliśmy na spacer
Although it was raining, we went for a walk

However, coordinating conjunctions do not affect word order:

On jest zmęczony, ale pracuje dalej
He is tired, but he keeps working

Conjunctions in Polish

Adjectives in Polish are words that describe or modify nouns, giving information about qualities such as color, size, shape, personality, origin, and more. Unlike in English, where adjectives remain unchanged regardless of the noun, Polish adjectives must agree with the noun they describe in gender, number, and case.

This agreement system makes Polish adjectives both rich and highly structured. To use them correctly, you must understand how they change based on the noun’s grammatical features.

Adjective Placement

In most cases, adjectives come before the noun in Polish.

piękna kobieta
a beautiful woman

duży dom
a big house

zielone drzewo
a green tree

However, adjectives may follow the noun in poetic, formal, or emphatic language, especially in set phrases or literary styles.

miasto stołeczne Warszawa
the capital city of Warsaw

Gender Agreement

Polish adjectives change their endings based on the gender of the noun they modify. In the nominative singular, the basic adjective endings are:

-y / -i for masculine nouns
-a for feminine nouns
-e for neuter nouns

ładny chłopiec
a handsome boy (masculine)

ładna dziewczyna
a pretty girl (feminine)

ładne dziecko
a cute child (neuter)

The choice between -y and -i for masculine adjectives depends on the softness of the final consonant in the adjective stem, but most learners treat them as interchangeable at the beginner level.

Number Agreement

Adjectives also change depending on whether the noun is singular or plural.

wysoki mężczyzna
a tall man (singular)

wysocy mężczyźni
tall men (plural masculine personal)

wysokie kobiety
tall women (plural non-masculine personal)

In the plural, adjectives take different endings depending on whether the noun is masculine personal or non-masculine personal (which includes feminine, neuter, and masculine non-personal).

Case Agreement

Adjectives in Polish must be declined according to case, just like nouns. Each case has its own set of adjective endings. For example:

Nominative:
dobry pies a good dog
dobra kawa good coffee
dobre piwo good beer

Accusative (for animate masculine):
Widzę dobrego psa
I see the good dog

Accusative (for feminine/neuter):
Piję dobrą kawę
I’m drinking good coffee

Mam dobre piwo
I have good beer

This pattern continues across all cases—genitive, dative, instrumental, locative, and vocative—and the adjective must always match the noun it describes.

Adjective Comparison

Polish adjectives can be used in positive, comparative, and superlative forms, just like in English.

mały small
mniejszy smaller
najmniejszy smallest

szybki fast
szybszy faster
najszybszy fastest

Comparative adjectives are usually formed by adding -szy or -iejszy depending on the adjective’s structure. The superlative is formed by adding naj- to the comparative.

To jest szybszy samochód
This is a faster car

To jest najszybszy pociąg
This is the fastest train

Some adjectives are irregular:

dobry good → lepszy better → najlepszy best
zły bad → gorszy worse → najgorszy worst

Predicative Use

Adjectives in Polish are often used with the verb być (to be) in predicative constructions. In these cases, the adjective still agrees with the noun in gender and number.

Ten dom jest duży
This house is big

Ta książka była ciekawa
That book was interesting

Te dzieci są wesołe
These children are cheerful

Adjectives as Nouns

In Polish, adjectives can also function as nouns when the noun is understood from context or implied. This is common in phrases like:

nieznajomy stranger (literally: unknown one)
biedni the poor
młodzi young people

Pomagamy biednym
We help the poor

These adjective-nouns are fully declined like regular adjectives and take on grammatical roles in the sentence.

Adjectives in Polish

The present tense in Polish is used to describe actions happening now, repeated actions, general truths, and even future actions, depending on the context. It is one of the most essential tenses in the language and the first that learners usually encounter. Polish verbs in the present tense are conjugated according to person and number, and their forms also reflect the aspect of the verb: imperfective or perfective.

To master the present tense in Polish, you must understand verb groups, conjugation endings, and the use of subject pronouns, which are often omitted in speech.

Verb Aspects and the Present Tense

Only imperfective verbs can be used in the present tense. These verbs describe actions that are ongoing, habitual, or not completed.

czytać to read (imperfective)
jem I am eating / I eat (from jeść, imperfective)

Perfective verbs, which describe completed actions, do not have present tense forms. Instead, their present forms refer to future actions.

napisać to write (perfective) – no true present tense form
Napiszę list jutro
I will write the letter tomorrow

So, for now, focus on imperfective verbs when learning the present tense.

Subject Pronouns and Verb Endings

In Polish, subject pronouns are optional, because verb endings show the subject clearly. Here are the subject pronouns, though they are often omitted in everyday speech:

ja I
ty you (singular informal)
on / ona / ono he / she / it
my we
wy you (plural)
oni / one they (masculine personal / non-masculine)

Conjugation Patterns

Most Polish verbs fall into four main conjugation groups, each with a distinct set of endings. Below is an overview of typical present tense endings using regular examples.

Group I: -ać (e.g. czytać – to read)
czytam I read
czytasz you read
czyta he/she/it reads
czytamy we read
czytacie you (pl.) read
czytają they read

Group II: -eć / -ić / -yć (e.g. mówić – to speak)
mówię I speak
mówisz you speak
mówi he/she/it speaks
mówimy we speak
mówicie you (pl.) speak
mówią they speak

Group III: -ować (e.g. pracować – to work)
pracuję I work
pracujesz you work
pracuje he/she/it works
pracujemy we work
pracujecie you (pl.) work
pracują they work

Group IV: Irregular verbs (e.g. być – to be)
jestem I am
jesteś you are
jest he/she/it is
jesteśmy we are
jesteście you (pl.) are
są they are

Each group has its own internal logic, and with time, learners begin to recognize conjugation patterns and apply them to new verbs intuitively.

Verbs and Pronunciation in the Present Tense

Because Polish verbs change endings based on person and number, pronunciation and stress play a role in clear communication. Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable, even after adding present tense endings.

czytam I read (stress on czy)
czytacie you read (pl.) (stress on ta)

Pronouncing these endings correctly is essential for distinguishing between subjects.

Present Tense and Habitual Actions

The present tense in Polish is used for daily routines, habits, and facts.

Codziennie piję kawę
I drink coffee every day

Ona zawsze śpiewa w łazience
She always sings in the bathroom

Ziemia krąży wokół Słońca
The Earth orbits the Sun

These are all examples of using the present tense to describe regular actions or universal truths.

Present Tense to Express Future

In Polish, imperfective present tense forms can also express future actions, especially when the time is clear from context or a time expression is included.

Jutro idę do kina
I’m going to the cinema tomorrow

Za godzinę wracam do domu
I’m returning home in an hour

This usage is common in speech and writing and works similarly to the English “I’m doing something tomorrow” construction.

Negative Form in the Present Tense

To make a sentence negative in the present tense, use “nie” before the verb.

Nie pracuję dzisiaj
I’m not working today

On nie lubi mleka
He doesn’t like milk

Nie czytamy tej książki
We are not reading that book

The word “nie” is always placed directly before the verb, and it is written as a separate word.

Present Tense in Polish

The past tense in Polish is used to describe completed actions or events that happened in the past. It is formed with the help of a past tense stem, gender-specific endings, and the auxiliary verb “być” (to be) in the present tense when needed for compound forms. The formation of the past tense reflects both person and gender, which makes it a unique feature among Slavic languages and a point of challenge for learners.

Formation of the Past Tense

The Polish past tense is built from the infinitive form of the verb. First, you remove the infinitive ending (-ć) and add the appropriate personal ending based on the subject’s gender (in singular) and number (in plural).

Example with the verb pisać to write:

ja pisałem / pisałam I wrote
ty pisałeś / pisałaś you wrote
on pisał he wrote
ona pisała she wrote
ono pisało it wrote

In the plural, gender also affects the endings:

my pisaliśmy / pisałyśmy we wrote
wy pisaliście / pisałyście you (plural) wrote
oni pisali they (masculine personal) wrote
one pisały they (non-masculine) wrote

Masculine and feminine forms must be used correctly to reflect the gender of the speaker or the subject.

Gender in the Past Tense

One of the defining traits of the Polish past tense is its gender agreement in the singular. The ending changes depending on whether the speaker or subject is masculine, feminine, or neuter.

czytałem I read (masculine)
czytałam I read (feminine)

The same verb has different forms depending on who is doing the action, and this is marked grammatically in the verb itself.

Plural Forms and Personal Gender

In the plural, Polish distinguishes between masculine personal (groups that include at least one male human) and non-masculine personal (groups of women, neuter objects, animals, or mixed non-human categories).

Oni pracowali They (men or mixed group) worked
One pracowały They (women or objects) worked

This distinction is a consistent feature of Polish grammar and must be respected when constructing past tense forms.

Verb Aspect in the Past Tense

Both imperfective and perfective verbs are used in the past tense. The choice of aspect communicates whether the action was ongoing or habitual (imperfective) or completed (perfective).

czytałem książkę I was reading a book (imperfective)
przeczytałem książkę I read (finished) the book (perfective)

This aspectual distinction is one of the most important concepts in Polish verb usage, especially in the past tense.

Auxiliary Verbs in Compound Forms

When the past tense is used to form compound tenses such as the past conditional, the auxiliary verb “być” (to be) appears in its present tense form, attached after the past form of the verb.

Zrobiłbym to
I would do it (masculine)

Zrobiłabym to
I would do it (feminine)

The auxiliary “bym”, “byś”, “by”, etc., marks the conditional mood and follows the past participle. This combination helps form more complex meanings beyond the simple past.

Negative Form in the Past Tense

To negate a verb in the past tense, “nie” is placed before the verb.

Nie widziałem jej wczoraj
I didn’t see her yesterday

Nie jedliśmy śniadania
We didn’t eat breakfast

The word “nie” is always written separately from the verb.

Questions in the Past Tense

Forming questions in the past tense usually involves changing intonation or using a question word. The word order typically remains unchanged.

Czy czytałaś tę książkę?
Did you read this book? (feminine)

Gdzie byłeś wczoraj?
Where were you yesterday? (masculine)

Kto to zrobił?
Who did this?

The interrogative particle “czy” is often used to introduce yes/no questions.

Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense

Some verbs, especially those like być to be, mieć to have, and modal verbs, have irregular past forms.

być – to be
byłem / byłam I was
byli / były they were

mieć – to have
miałem / miałam I had

While most verbs are regular in their past conjugation, these high-frequency verbs require memorization.

Past Tense in Polish

The future tense in Polish expresses actions that will happen after the moment of speaking. Unlike English, which uses a single structure with "will" or "going to," Polish uses two different methods to express the future, depending on whether the verb is perfective or imperfective in aspect.

The distinction between perfective and imperfective aspect is fundamental in Polish and directly affects how the future tense is formed.

Perfective Verbs in the Future

Perfective verbs describe completed, one-time actions in the future. They do not exist in the present tense. Instead, their present form conveys future meaning.

For example, the verb napisać to write (a completed act) is perfective.

ja napiszę – I will write
ty napiszesz – you will write
on / ona / ono napisze – he / she / it will write
my napiszemy – we will write
wy napiszecie – you (plural) will write
oni / one napiszą – they will write

These forms look like present tense conjugations, but since perfective verbs can't describe ongoing actions, they always refer to the future.

Imperfective Verbs in the Future

Imperfective verbs describe ongoing, habitual, or repeated future actions. To form the future tense with imperfective verbs, you must use a compound structure made of:

1. The future tense of the verb “być” (to be)

2. The infinitive or imperfective past participle of the main verb

Example with czytać to read (imperfective):

ja będę czytać – I will be reading / I will read
ty będziesz czytać – you will be reading
on / ona / ono będzie czytać – he / she / it will be reading
my będziemy czytać – we will be reading
wy będziecie czytać – you (plural) will be reading
oni / one będą czytać – they will be reading

This compound structure emphasizes duration, repetition, or open-ended action in the future.

Choice of Aspect: Perfective vs. Imperfective

Choosing the correct aspect is crucial in Polish and affects how your message is understood.

Zadzwonię do ciebie jutro
I will call you tomorrow (perfective – one time, completed action)

Będę dzwonić do ciebie codziennie
I will be calling you every day (imperfective – repeated or continuous action)

Napiszemy test w piątek
We will write the test on Friday (perfective – single event)

Będziemy pisać test przez godzinę
We will be writing the test for an hour (imperfective – duration)

This distinction allows speakers to communicate the nature of future actions with precision.

Negative Form in the Future Tense

To negate future tense expressions, “nie” is placed before the verb być (for imperfective compound futures) or before the conjugated perfective verb.

Nie będę pracować jutro
I will not work tomorrow (imperfective)

Nie przeczytam tej książki
I will not read this book (perfective)

In both cases, the negation follows the same structure used in other tenses.

Questions in the Future Tense

Questions are formed either by changing intonation or adding the particle “czy” at the beginning.

Czy będziesz jeść kolację?
Will you eat dinner?

Będziesz jeść kolację?
Will you eat dinner? (spoken Polish)

Kiedy przeczytasz tę książkę?
When will you read this book?

Future Tense in Polish

The imperative mood in Polish is used to express commands, requests, suggestions, and advice. Like in English, Polish imperatives can range in tone from polite to forceful depending on context, intonation, and choice of verb form. They are commonly used in both everyday conversation and formal instructions.

Polish imperatives are formed differently depending on the verb conjugation group, person, and politeness level. The imperative can be directed toward second person (you), first person plural (let’s), or third person (let him/her/they do something).

Imperatives for the Second Person (Singular and Plural)

To form the second-person singular imperative (used with ty you), you usually take the third person singular of the present tense and remove the ending -e, -i, or -a, depending on the verb.

Examples:

czytać – to read
czytaj! – read!

pić – to drink
pij! – drink!

robić – to do / make
rób! – do!

For the second-person plural (used with wy you all), you add -cie to the singular imperative form.

czytajcie! – read! (you all)
pijcie! – drink! (you all)
róbcie! – do! (you all)

Imperatives for the First Person Plural (Let’s…)

To say “let’s do something”, Polish uses the form my + verb in imperative plural form or simply the verb form by itself in informal settings.

Examples:

czytajmy! – let’s read!
pijmy! – let’s drink!
róbmy! – let’s do it!

This form is inclusive and encourages group action.

Imperatives for the Third Person (Let Him/Her/Them…)

Polish uses “niech” + third person verb form to express a command or suggestion directed at he, she, or they.

Examples:

Niech on idzie! – Let him go!
Niech ona mówi! – Let her speak!
Niech oni pracują! – Let them work!

This structure is especially common in more formal speech or writing.

Negative Imperatives

To form a negative imperative, use “nie” + the imperative form.

Examples:

Nie czytaj! – Don’t read!
Nie pijcie! – Don’t drink!
Nie róbmy tego! – Let’s not do that!

In third person imperatives, the negation still comes before the verb:

Niech on nie mówi! – Let him not speak!

Irregular Imperatives

Some Polish verbs have irregular imperative forms that do not follow typical patterns. These must be memorized.

Examples:

być – to be
bądź! – be! (singular)
bądźcie! – be! (plural)

mieć – to have
miej! – have! (singular)
miejcie! – have! (plural)

These forms are very common and frequently used in both formal and informal speech.

Politeness and Softening Commands

In everyday Polish, especially with strangers or in formal situations, imperatives can sound too direct. Poles often soften commands using conditional forms, modal verbs, or polite particles like proszę please.

Proszę usiąść. – Please sit down.
Czy mógłbyś mi pomóc? – Could you help me?
Chciałbym, żebyś to zrobił. – I’d like you to do this.

Using polite forms shows respect and is important in social contexts such as work, customer service, or speaking to elders.

Common Verbs in Imperative Forms

mówić – to speak
mów! – speak!
mówcie! – speak! (plural)

iść – to go (on foot)
idź! – go!
idźcie! – go! (plural)

jeść – to eat
jedz! – eat!
jedzcie! – eat! (plural)

Imperative in Polish

The passive voice in Polish is a grammatical construction used to emphasize the action or the receiver of the action, rather than the doer. It’s commonly used in written texts, formal communication, instructions, and descriptions where the agent (doer) is unknown, irrelevant, or intentionally omitted.

Polish forms the passive voice in two main ways: the być (to be) + past participle structure, and the impersonal passive using się.

The Passive with “Być” + Past Participle

This is the standard form of the passive voice in Polish and is most commonly used in the present, past, and future tenses.

Structure:
subject + form of być + past participle (agrees in gender and number with the subject)

Examples:

List jest napisany – The letter is written (masculine singular)
Książka jest przeczytana – The book is read (feminine singular)
Dokumenty są podpisane – The documents are signed (plural)

In the past tense, the verb być is conjugated accordingly:

List był napisany – The letter was written
Książka była przeczytana – The book was read
Dokumenty były podpisane – The documents were signed

In the future tense, the structure uses the future form of być:

List będzie napisany – The letter will be written
Dokumenty będą podpisane – The documents will be signed

The doer of the action (agent) can be introduced with the preposition przez:

List został napisany przez Jana – The letter was written by Jan

However, in many passive sentences in Polish, the agent is omitted, especially in formal or objective writing.

The Passive with “Zostać” + Past Participle

Another way to form the passive is by using zostać instead of być, especially in the past and future to emphasize the completion or result of the action.

Examples:

List został napisany – The letter has been written
Książka została przeczytana – The book was read

The use of zostać adds a nuance of change or result and is often used in more formal or descriptive contexts.

The Impersonal Passive with “Się”

Polish often uses reflexive constructions with się to create impersonal or passive-like expressions, especially in the present tense. This form is common in speech, instructions, advertisements, and neutral announcements.

Examples:

Tu mówi się po polsku – Polish is spoken here
Tutaj sprzedaje się chleb – Bread is sold here
W tej firmie zatrudnia się wielu pracowników – Many workers are employed in this company

This construction avoids specifying the subject altogether, making it very useful for general or indefinite statements. It does not show gender or number agreement.

Differences Between the Constructions

• Być + participle: most common, flexible, and can specify the agent.
  List jest napisany przez ucznia – The letter is written by the student

• Zostać + participle: emphasizes a completed action or a result.
  List został napisany wczoraj – The letter was written yesterday

• Się construction: impersonal, agent is omitted entirely.
  W tym sklepie kupuje się warzywa – Vegetables are bought in this store

When to Use the Passive

Use the passive in Polish when:

• The doer of the action is unknown or unimportant

• You want to focus on the object or result

• You’re writing formal instructions or descriptions

• You want to generalize (with się)

Examples in context:

Droga została zbudowana w 1995 roku – The road was built in 1995
Obiad jest gotowany przez babcię – The lunch is being cooked by grandma
W Polsce obchodzi się Wigilię 24 grudnia – In Poland, Christmas Eve is celebrated on December 24

Passive in Polish

Adverbs in Polish describe how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed. They modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and they do not change form for gender, number, or case, which makes them one of the more regular parts of speech in Polish grammar.

Polish adverbs often end in -o or -e, especially when derived from adjectives. They play a vital role in creating nuance, emphasis, and detail in sentences.

Types of Polish Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner (Jak? – How?)

These adverbs describe how something is done. They are most commonly formed from adjectives and often end in -o or -e.

Examples:

szybko – quickly
cicho – quietly
głośno – loudly
łatwo – easily
trudno – difficultly

Sentence examples:

On mówi szybko – He speaks quickly
Dziecko śpi cicho – The child is sleeping quietly

Adverbs of Place (Gdzie? – Where?)

These adverbs describe where something happens.

Examples:

tutaj – here
tam – there
wszędzie – everywhere
nigdzie – nowhere
na zewnątrz – outside
w środku – inside

Sentence examples:

Chodź tutaj – Come here
Nie widzę go nigdzie – I can't see him anywhere

Adverbs of Time (Kiedy? – When?)

These adverbs describe when something happens or its frequency.

Examples:

teraz – now
wczoraj – yesterday
dzisiaj – today
jutro – tomorrow
często – often
rzadko – rarely

Sentence examples:

Dzisiaj pada deszcz – It’s raining today
Zawsze piję kawę rano – I always drink coffee in the morning

Adverbs of Degree (W jakim stopniu? – To what extent?)

These adverbs describe how much or to what extent something is done.

Examples:

bardzo – very
trochę – a little
zupełnie – completely
dość – rather
prawie – almost

Sentence examples:

Jestem bardzo zmęczony – I am very tired
To jest dość trudne – This is rather difficult

Interrogative Adverbs (Question Words)

These adverbs introduce questions.

Examples:

jak – how
gdzie – where
kiedy – when
dlaczego – why
czemu – why (colloquial)

Sentence examples:

Jak się masz? – How are you?
Gdzie mieszkasz? – Where do you live?
Dlaczego płaczesz? – Why are you crying?

Formation of Adverbs from Adjectives

Many adverbs in Polish are formed from adjectives, usually by replacing the adjective ending -y / -i with -o or -e.

Examples:

szybki (fast) → szybko (quickly)
cichy (quiet) → cicho (quietly)
ładny (nice) → ładnie (nicely)

These adverbs do not decline and remain the same regardless of the subject.

Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adverbs

Adverbs derived from adjectives can have comparative and superlative forms.

• Comparative: Add -iej, -ej, or bardziej before the adverb

• Superlative: Add naj- to the comparative form

Examples:

szybko – quickly
szybciej – more quickly
najszybciej – most quickly

ładnie – nicely
ładniej – more nicely
najładniej – most nicely

For some adverbs that do not derive from adjectives, use bardziej (more) and najbardziej (most):

dokładnie – precisely
bardziej dokładnie – more precisely
najbardziej dokładnie – most precisely

Negative Forms of Adverbs

To negate an adverb, nie is placed directly in front of it.

Examples:

nie szybko – not quickly
nie tam – not there
nie zawsze – not always

Sentence examples:

Nie jem szybko – I don't eat quickly
Ona nie zawsze jest punktualna – She is not always punctual

Adverbs in Polish

Modal verbs in Polish, much like in English, are used to express possibility, necessity, ability, permission, obligation, or desire. Unlike English, however, Polish modal verbs do not form a special grammatical category. Instead, they are regular verbs that function modally when combined with an infinitive verb. They typically come before the main verb and do not require a conjunction.

The most common Polish modal verbs include:

móc (can, to be able to)
musieć (must, to have to)
chcieć (to want)
powinien/powinna/powinno (should, ought to)
umieć (to know how to)
trzeba (it is necessary)
wolno (it is allowed)

Móc – Can / May / Be able to

móc is used to express possibility, ability, or permission. It is conjugated and followed by an infinitive.

Examples:

Mogę iść – I can go
Czy mogę zadać pytanie? – May I ask a question?
Oni mogą zostać – They can stay

The verb móc is irregular and changes its stem in different tenses.

Musieć – Must / Have to

musieć expresses necessity, obligation, or compulsion.

Examples:

Muszę pracować – I must work
Musisz to zrobić – You have to do this
Dzieci muszą się uczyć – Children must study

Like móc, this verb is also followed by the infinitive of the main verb.

Chcieć – To Want

chcieć is a regular verb expressing desire or intention.

Examples:

Chcę spać – I want to sleep
Ona chce kupić samochód – She wants to buy a car
Czy chcecie coś do picia? – Do you want something to drink?

This verb is very common and widely used in both spoken and written Polish.

Powinien / Powinna / Powinno – Should / Ought to

This verb varies with gender and number of the subject and is used to express advice, moral obligation, or expectation.

Examples:

Powinien iść do lekarza – He should go to the doctor
Powinnam odpocząć – I (female) should rest
Powinni się uczyć – They should study

Note the endings change with gender:

• powinien – masculine

• powinna – feminine

• powinno – neuter

• powinni – plural

Umieć – To Know How To / Be Skilled At

umieć is used to express learned ability, particularly for skills.

Examples:

Umiem pływać – I can swim
Czy umiesz grać na pianinie? – Do you know how to play the piano?
Ona umie mówić po francusku – She knows how to speak French

This verb is typically reserved for mental or physical skills rather than general possibility.

Trzeba – It Is Necessary / One Must

trzeba is an impersonal verb used to express general obligation or necessity.

Examples:

Trzeba się uczyć – One must study / It's necessary to study
Trzeba zapłacić – It’s necessary to pay

Because trzeba has no personal conjugation, it is always used in the third person singular with the infinitive.

Wolno – It Is Allowed / One May

Like trzeba, wolno is impersonal and used to express permission or tolerance.

Examples:

Wolno tu palić? – Is it allowed to smoke here?
Nie wolno wchodzić – Entry is not allowed

Word Order and Usage

Modal verbs are placed before the main verb, which remains in the infinitive form.

Examples:

Muszę iść teraz – I have to go now
Możesz to zrobić później – You can do it later
Chcemy kupić nowy komputer – We want to buy a new computer

In compound tenses or negations, the modal verb is conjugated and modified, while the main verb remains in the infinitive.

Nie mogę spać – I can't sleep
Nie chcą jechać – They don’t want to go

Modal Verbs in Polish

Negation in Polish

Negation in Polish is a core grammatical feature that influences verbs, nouns, pronouns, and even case usage. Unlike English, where negation often involves auxiliary verbs like don’t or isn’t, Polish typically negates sentences using the particle nie, which is placed directly in front of the verb or other negated word. Mastering Polish negation requires attention to word order, double negatives, and the changes it causes in grammatical case.

Basic Verbal Negation

The primary way to negate a verb in Polish is to place nie before the verb.

Examples:

Lubię kawę – I like coffee
Nie lubię kawy – I don’t like coffee

Ona czyta książkę – She is reading a book
Ona nie czyta książki – She is not reading the book

Negation in this form applies across tenses and persons:

Nie byłem tam – I wasn’t there
Nie będziemy pracować – We won’t work

Case Change After Negation

In affirmative sentences, verbs often take the accusative case, but when negated, the object switches to the genitive case.

Examples:

Mam psa – I have a dog (accusative: psa)
Nie mam psa – I don’t have a dog (genitive: psa, same form in this case)

Widzę dziewczynę – I see a girl (accusative: dziewczynę)
Nie widzę dziewczyny – I don’t see a girl (genitive: dziewczyny)

This rule is one of the key differences between affirmative and negative statements in Polish and affects direct objects in negative constructions.

Double Negatives

Polish allows and requires double (and even triple) negatives for emphasis. Words like nikt (no one), nic (nothing), nigdzie (nowhere), or nigdy (never) must be used with nie.

Examples:

Nikt nie przyszedł – Nobody came
Nigdy nie byłem w Polsce – I’ve never been to Poland
Nic nie rozumiem – I don’t understand anything
Nigdzie nie idziemy – We’re not going anywhere

This structure might seem like a “double negative” in English, but in Polish it is grammatically correct and necessary.

Negating Nouns and Pronouns

Negation with nouns often involves changing the case (typically to genitive) and placing nie before the verb or the noun.

Examples:

To jest problem – This is a problem
To nie jest problem – This is not a problem

Mam czas – I have time
Nie mam czasu – I don’t have time

When negating possession, the genitive case is used, and mieć (to have) is negated with nie.

Negation in Questions

In questions, negation works similarly to statements—nie still precedes the verb.

Examples:

Czy on nie pracuje? – Doesn’t he work?
Nie chcesz iść z nami? – Don’t you want to come with us?

If the question begins with a negative word, like nikt, the sentence must also use nie.

Nikt nie wie? – No one knows?
Nic nie powiedziałeś? – You didn’t say anything?

Negative Prefixes

Many Polish adjectives, adverbs, and nouns can be negated by prefixing with nie, forming a single word (unlike with verbs where nie is a separate word).

Examples:

normalny – normal → nienormalny – abnormal
szczęśliwy – happy → nieszczęśliwy – unhappy
możliwy – possible → niemożliwy – impossible

These are treated as new words with their own meanings and are typically written together, not separately.

Imperative Negation

To form negative commands or instructions, use nie before the imperative form of the verb.

Examples:

Idź! – Go!
Nie idź! – Don’t go!

Mów! – Speak!
Nie mów! – Don’t speak!

This structure is direct and commonly used in spoken Polish.

Polish is a flexible but structured language when it comes to word order. While the default order is Subject–Verb–Object (SVO)—similar to English—Polish allows for a high degree of variation. This flexibility is possible because grammatical relationships are often marked by case endings, not word position. As a result, word order is used more for emphasis, stylistic effect, or rhythmic balance than for basic grammatical clarity.

Understanding how word order functions in Polish will help you not only build correct sentences but also sound more natural and expressive.

Default Word Order: Subject–Verb–Object

The most neutral and common sentence structure in Polish follows the Subject–Verb–Object pattern.

Examples:

Maria czyta książkę – Maria is reading a book
On lubi kawę – He likes coffee
Dzieci jedzą obiad – The children are eating lunch

This structure is typically used in written texts, formal speech, and situations where no special emphasis is required.

Emphasis and Reordering

Because Polish relies on inflection, the same sentence can be rearranged for different emphasis without changing its basic meaning.

Examples:

Książkę czyta Maria – It’s Maria who is reading the book (emphasis on the subject)
Czyta Maria książkę – Maria is reading a book (more poetic or narrative tone)
Książkę Maria czyta – It’s the book that Maria is reading (emphasis on the object)

These variations are common in poetry, literature, and spoken Polish, especially when the speaker wants to highlight a particular part of the sentence.

Questions and Inversion

In yes–no questions, Polish often inverts the word order, placing the verb before the subject.

Examples:

Czy on idzie do pracy? – Is he going to work?
Idzie on do pracy? – Is he going to work? (without "czy," slightly less formal)
On idzie do pracy? – He’s going to work? (spoken, with rising intonation)

Using czy at the beginning of a yes–no question is optional in spoken Polish but common in writing or more formal contexts.

Adjective and Noun Order

Polish adjectives typically precede the noun, though post-positioned adjectives are possible for poetic or stylistic reasons.

Examples:

piękny dom – a beautiful house
stary samochód – an old car

Reversing the order—dom piękny—is possible but unusual and usually appears in poetry or emotionally heightened language.

Time, Manner, and Place

In Polish, the neutral sentence structure often follows the Time–Manner–Place order when adverbials are included.

Examples:

Wczoraj spokojnie wróciłem do domu – Yesterday I quietly returned home
Codziennie szybko idzie do pracy – He goes to work quickly every day

Changing the order of these adverbials can affect the rhythm and tone but usually not the meaning.

Pronouns and Word Order

When pronouns are involved, especially object pronouns, they tend to be placed before the verb unless emphasis requires them to be moved.

Examples:

Widzę ją – I see her
Nie widzę go – I don’t see him

For added emphasis:

Ją widzę, nie jego – It’s her I see, not him

Pronouns in object position are often emphasized when moved after the verb or to the front of the sentence.

Word Order in Negative Sentences

Negation generally keeps the same order but introduces nie before the verb, and may switch the object case to genitive.

Examples:

Nie czytam gazety – I’m not reading the newspaper
Nie lubię tej kawy – I don’t like this coffee

Reordered forms can still appear, especially for contrast or emotional emphasis:

Gazety nie czytam – I don’t read the newspaper (emphasis on gazety)

Commands and Imperatives

Imperative constructions usually begin with the verb, especially when the subject is dropped (as is common in Polish).

Examples:

Idź do sklepu! – Go to the store!
Zrób to teraz! – Do it now!

For added urgency or stress:

To zrób teraz! – Do that now!
Teraz idź! – Go now!

Poetic and Dramatic Variations

In poetry, literature, and dramatic speech, Polish allows for a wide range of word orders to achieve rhythm, rhyme, or emotional effect. These constructions may sound unnatural in conversation but are accepted in artistic language.

Examples:

Księżyc jasny w niebie świeci – The bright moon shines in the sky
W dalekie kraje on wyruszył – He set out for distant lands

Such constructions are beautiful examples of how Polish word order can create mood and imagery.

Word Order in Polish

Forming questions in Polish is an essential part of communication and fortunately, it’s relatively straightforward once you understand the key structures. Polish allows both yes–no questions and wh- questions (using question words like what, where, how, etc.), and their structure is largely governed by intonation, question words, and optional word order changes.

Although Polish does not require auxiliary verbs (like do in English), it does make use of the particle czy to mark yes–no questions more clearly in formal contexts. Let’s explore the different types of questions and how they function in Polish.

Yes–No Questions

Yes–no questions in Polish can be formed in two main ways:

1. Using Rising Intonation Only

You can turn a statement into a question simply by using rising intonation—much like in casual English.

Examples:

Masz czas? – Do you have time?
On idzie do pracy? – Is he going to work?
Lubisz kawę? – Do you like coffee?

This form is very common in spoken Polish, especially in informal contexts.

2. Using the Question Particle czy

The word czy is often placed at the beginning of yes–no questions to signal that a question is being asked. It is more typical in written, formal, or neutral spoken language.

Examples:

Czy masz czas? – Do you have time?
Czy on idzie do pracy? – Is he going to work?
Czy lubisz kawę? – Do you like coffee?

There is no difference in meaning between the versions with and without czy. The difference is mostly stylistic.

Wh- Questions (Question Words)

Wh- questions in Polish are built around interrogative pronouns or adverbs, just like in English. These words usually come at the beginning of the question.

Common Polish Question Words:

• kto – who

• co – what

• gdzie – where

• kiedy – when

• dlaczego – why

• jak – how

• który – which

• ile – how much / how many

• czyj – whose

Examples:

Kto to jest? – Who is this?
Co robisz? – What are you doing?
Gdzie mieszkasz? – Where do you live?
Kiedy wracasz? – When are you coming back?
Dlaczego płaczesz? – Why are you crying?
Jak się nazywasz? – What’s your name?
Ile to kosztuje? – How much does it cost?
Czyj to telefon? – Whose phone is this?

Word order in these questions is typically Question word – Verb – Subject, though variations exist.

Echo Questions

Polish often uses echo questions to confirm or express surprise. These repeat a part of what was said with rising intonation.

Examples:

Idziesz jutro do kina? – You’re going to the cinema tomorrow?
Nowy samochód? – A new car?
Z nim się spotkała? – She met with him?

These are common in conversation, used to verify or react with curiosity or disbelief.

Tag Questions

Polish doesn’t have set tag question structures like English (isn’t it?, don’t you?), but speakers may use phrases like:

prawda? – right?
czyż nie? – isn’t it?
co nie? – isn’t that so?
tak? – yes?

Examples:

To był twój pomysł, prawda? – That was your idea, right?
On jest lekarzem, czyż nie? – He is a doctor, isn’t he?
Masz jutro wolne, co nie? – You’re free tomorrow, right?

Questions with Prepositions

When a preposition is involved, it often appears at the beginning of the question followed by the question word.

Examples:

Z kim rozmawiasz? – With whom are you speaking?
Do kogo piszesz? – To whom are you writing?
O czym myślisz? – What are you thinking about?
Na co czekasz? – What are you waiting for?

This structure mirrors the formal construction in English (To whom, About what), and it is standard in Polish.

Inverted Questions vs. Statement Word Order

In Polish, questions often use inversion (Verb–Subject) but can also keep a regular word order with rising intonation. Both are acceptable.

Examples:

Czy ty wiesz? – Do you know?
Wiesz ty? – Do you know? (less common)
Ty wiesz? – You know? (spoken, casual)

In spoken Polish, word order is often more fluid and governed by tone and emphasis.

Questions in Polish

Relative clauses in Polish function similarly to those in English: they provide additional information about a noun without starting a new sentence. These clauses are typically introduced by relative pronouns, which link the clause to the noun it describes. Mastering relative clauses is essential for building more sophisticated and nuanced sentences in Polish.

In English, we use words like who, which, or that. In Polish, the equivalent depends on the gender, case, and number of the noun being described and the grammatical role the pronoun plays in the relative clause.

Key Polish Relative Pronouns

The most common Polish relative pronouns are:

• który – who / which / that (used for all genders and numbers, declined accordingly)

• co – what / that which (used in certain impersonal or abstract contexts)

• kto – who (used only for people, often in questions but rarely in relative clauses)

• czym / czymś / czymkolwiek – with which / something with which / anything with which (used with prepositions in specific constructions)

Among these, który is by far the most widely used in relative clauses.

Declension of "który"

The pronoun który must agree in gender, number, and case with the noun it refers to. Its case is determined by its function in the relative clause, not in the main clause.

Examples:

To jest pies, który szczeka. – This is the dog who is barking.
(który = nominative masculine singular, subject of the clause)

To jest kobieta, którą widziałem. – This is the woman whom I saw.
(którą = accusative feminine singular, object of the clause)

To są dzieci, którym dałem prezenty. – These are the children to whom I gave gifts.
(którym = dative neuter plural, indirect object)

As seen here, który takes different endings depending on whether it acts as the subject, object, or is governed by a preposition.

Structure of Relative Clauses

Relative clauses typically follow this pattern:

Main clause + noun + relative pronoun + verb + rest of the clause

Examples:

Znam kobietę, która mieszka w Krakowie. – I know a woman who lives in Kraków.
To jest film, który widzieliśmy wczoraj. – This is the film that we saw yesterday.
To jest chłopiec, którego siostra jest nauczycielką. – This is the boy whose sister is a teacher.

In the third example, którego is genitive, because it means whose and refers to possession.

Prepositions and Relative Pronouns

In Polish, prepositions come before the relative pronoun, unlike in informal English, where they may appear at the end of the clause.

Examples:

To jest dom, w którym mieszkam. – This is the house I live in.
(w którym = in which)
To jest osoba, o której mówiłem. – This is the person I spoke about.
(o której = about whom)
To są rzeczy, z których jestem dumny. – These are the things I’m proud of.
(z których = of which)

This is a key syntactic rule in Polish—never place the preposition after the verb in the relative clause.

Using "co" as a Relative Pronoun

In some cases, Polish uses co instead of który, particularly when referring to:

• abstract ideas or entire clauses

• non-specific antecedents like everything, nothing, something

Examples:

Powiedział wszystko, co wiedział. – He said everything (that) he knew.
Nic, co mówisz, mnie nie obchodzi. – Nothing (that) you say matters to me.
To, co zrobiłeś, jest niewybaczalne. – What you did is unforgivable.

In these examples, co refers not to a specific noun but to an idea, statement, or unknown object.

Omission of Relative Pronouns

In English, we often omit relative pronouns, especially in casual speech (the book I read instead of the book that I read). In Polish, however, the relative pronoun is always required. It cannot be dropped.

Correct:
To jest książka, którą przeczytałem. – This is the book I read.

Incorrect (in Polish):
To jest książka, przeczytałem. – (Ungrammatical)

Pronoun + Verb Agreement

Like all Polish pronouns, relative pronouns agree in number and gender with the noun they refer to, and their case reflects their grammatical function within the relative clause.

Examples:

Znam ludzi, którzy chcą pomóc. – I know people who want to help.
(którzy = masculine personal plural)

To są okna, które trzeba umyć. – These are windows that need to be cleaned.
(które = neuter plural)

Relative Clauses in Polish

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